فصلنامه تاریخ اسلام
پیاپی 21 (بهار 1384)

Imam Ali's (pbuh) views on philosophy of histiry are a clear interpretation of Qur'anic concepts. In his words philosophy of history has been taken up with a purposeful and completely self - conscious approach. The beginning and end of history are the most important parts of these reflections. He divides the whole history into three parts the creation and selection of Adam (the begining of history, the sending of the prophets (the second period of history) and the coming of the rectifying Messiah (the end of history). Based on his words, major factors in shaping human history are: 1. The ordinance of divine providence 2. Man's free will and ability to choose. Key words: divine tradition, the world and the hereafter, the viceroy of Allah. bi'thah (the sending of prophets), Ahl al-Bayt (the Prophet's Household). THUGHUR SHAMI AND àWASIM (HISTORICAL, CULTURAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS FROM THE CONQUESTS TO THE END OF 3rd CENTURY A.H) Abbas Boroomand A'lam Since the very early years after Hijrah, Sham (Greater Syria), especially with promises of conquest made by the Prophet (pbuh) to the Muslims, was of special importance. Natural and cultural features of the region and its neighborhood to the Eastern Roman Empire had always attracted the attention of various states. Following the disintegration of the Islamic Caliphate, this caused permanent conflicts among the local and regional governments. On the other hand, the borders region always witnessed wars between the Muslims and the Byzantines. The coinage of the word thughur (Borders and وwasim (forts), in the political literature of Muslims since the early centuries A.H. and their repetition in sources, indicates the high importance of these regions. The cultural and social peculiarities of thughur and 'awasim had a significant role in shaping many regional developments and intellectual and social trends. These regions did not have a coherent ethnic and cultural identity; rather, they enjoyed a kind of fluidity in their cultural identity. For many centuries, this heritage was passed to the residents of these regions such that they always inherited the thoughts, culture and civilization of nations from the east and west of the Muslim world. They combined such diverse elements creating a new identity for themselves.

Since the very early years after Hijrah, Sham (Greater Syria),especially with promises of conquest made by the Prophet (pbuh)to the Muslims, was of special importance. Natural and culturalfeatures of the region and its neighborhood to the EasternRoman Empire had always attracted the attention of variousstates. Following the disintegration of the Islamic Caliphate, thiscaused permanent conflicts among the local and regionalgovernments. On the other hand, the borders region alwayswitnessed wars between the Muslims and the Byzantines. Thecoinage of the word thughur (Borders and áwasim (forts), in thepolitical literature ofMuslims since the early centuries A.H. andtheir repetition in sources, indicates the high importance of theseregions.The cultural and social peculiarities ofthughur and ’awasimhad a significantrole in shaping many regional developments andintellectual and social trends. These regions did not have acoherent ethnic and cultural identity; rather, they enjoyed a kindVol.6,Spring2005,Serial.No.21 5 of fluidity in their cultural identity. For many centuries, thisheritage was passed to the residents of these regions such thatthey always inherited the thoughts, culture and civilization ofnations from the east and west of the Muslim world. Theycombined such diverse elements creating a new identity forthemselves.

Both befor and after Islam, Khorasan has always witnessed major political. social and... events. Arab conquests in Iran, especially Khorasan are of special significance. The vastness of Khorasan, its proximity to the Far East and the conquerors' look at this region as a bridge to the Central Asia and the Far East had a major influence on khorasan's history. To discuss the issue of the conquests it seems necessary to study the life of the great conquerors. The purpose of this article is to deal with the life, ancestry, tribe, household, children and socio-political practices of Ghutayban ibn Muslim Bahili.

Sectarian quarrels; that happened under particular religious, political and economic conditions, were the most important factor in shaping Baghdad's history between 232 to 656 A.H.With the establishment of the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad, the capital of the caliphate soon turned into a center for various ethnicities and religions. From the very begining, the incohernet mix of the population and political and economic rivalries created fertile grounds for many urban conflicts and riots among the Arabs, Iranians and Turks. With official birth of Shi'ah and Sunni branches of Islam, efforts starded by scholars of both sects to  infiltrate the power structure in the capital. Competition gain a bigger share of power exacerbated the disputes and consequently led to many religious quarrels and conflicts. On the other hand, religious inclination by the caliphs and their functionaries towards specific sects also intensified the rivalries.During the 4th and 5th centuries A.H., a relative balance of power existed between the two Shi'ah adn Sunni sects; while each group was trying to muster greater influence and power through attracting the support of the caliph, technocrats, military commanders or even various urban groups. This article deals with the role of the caliphs, government officials, military commanders, religious scholars and the masses of the people in the creation and intensification of religious conflicts in the specified period.

Imran ibn Shahin, who at first had sought refuge in the Batayih region as a criminal, seized upon the weak state of the Abbasid Caliphate and established an independent government there at the beginning of the 4th century A.H. Using such conditions as the ruggedness of the Batayih region, he repeatedly repelled attacks by Al-i Buyah (the Buyid) sultans. After his death, his descendants ruled for a short while but because of in-house disputes grew weak and finally were ovethrown in a coup by their generals. The rebellious army commanders substituted their predecessors and continued their path. In this paper, at first, the geographical situation of Batayih and the region's role in the Mesopotamian rebelions until the 4th century A.H. are reviewed. Then, the establishment of the Shahinian dynasty and conflicts between its founder, Imran ibn Shahin, and his souccessor, Hasan ibn Imran, on the one hand and Mu'izz-d-Dawlah lzz-ad-Dawlah Bakhtiar and Adhad-ad-Dawlah on the other are discussed. At the end, the trend of the destruction of the Shahinian dynasty and consequences of their rule for the Batayih region are presented.

Islam entered southern India in late 7th and early 8th centuries A.H. Nevertheless, that area had long come to the attention of some Muslim sufis who had been traveling there to propagate their beliefs. The conquest of Deccan and sestablishment of Bahmani dynasty as the first independent Muslim government there resulted in the expansion of sufi beliefs and the spread of their various sects. The sufis gradually obtained great credit and began to exert significant influence on the various social groupsin the region; so much so that the Bahmani kings had to revert to the sufis in order to gain people's support. The sufis in turn used the opportunity to spread their own ideas while lending their support to the Bahmani kings.This article examines relations between the sufis and Bahmani king as well as the sufis' role in the establishment and continuation of the Bahmani rule in southern India.

This is the translation of one chapter of a book called "shi'ite Religion." Despite its old age and inclusion of inaccurate material, this book is considered to be the starting point of factual studies about the Imamiyah (Shi'ite) religion in the West (for the English speakers), and is still a refernce for many Western researchers interested in Shi'i studies. In this chapter; the writer deals with Kisaniyah or the followers of Muhammad ibn Hanafiyah; Ashura' and its aftermath; the succession of Imam Zayn al-Abidin after his noble father's martyrdom; and uprisings such as Tawwabin's, Mukhtar's and ibn Zubayr's Afrerwards, he has turned to Imam Sajjad's imamah and mentioned some private aspects of his life. In his footnotes, the translator - as much as possible - has corrected numerous incorrect views put forward by Donaldson.Key words: imamah, Ashura', Kisaniyah, Shi'ah uprisings, Imam Zayn al-Abidin.